DARSHANA PRIYAA – Kalabodh

Exploring the Rock…

DARSHANA PRIYAA — Thu, 22 May 2025 04:43:00 +0000

Exploring the Rock Art Traditions of Tamil Nadu and Central India: A Comparative Analysis

Man has always been expressive of his thoughts. The paintings on natural surfaces of caves, i.e., rock art, were the first means of graphical communication of early men. Rock art depicts their way of life, religious and cultural practices, and the variety of flora and fauna. Rockart in the context of the world emerged during the Upper Palaeolithic era, while in India it evolved during the Mesolithic era. The traditions of Tamil Nadu and Central India rock art provide an intriguing window into the cultural and artistic practices of ancient human societies.

Geographical Location

One of the richest and most important prehistoric art sites in Central India is Bhimbetka, which is in Madhya Pradesh. The site is marked by a prominent quartzite ridge and a sequence of monolithic rocks, with caves and shelters scattered over the hill slopes. The area’s rich fauna, consisting of wild creatures and consumable flora, rendered it a coveted site for the early settlements of humans.

While south India has rock art in shelters formed by granite boulders. These boulders, usually created when big granite masses collapsed and leaned against one another. Although a few shelters provide protection from weathering, granite is not the most suitable surface for paintings as it is coarse and also easily erodes. Despite such problems, these shelters continue to offer insights into rock art of ancient times.

Differences in Artistic Styles and Techniques

Central Indian rock paintings employ red, white, and sometimes bluish-green and yellow pigments, derived from natural minerals such as haematite. The paintings were made directly on natural rock surfaces with thin twigs, probably used as brushes. Animals are depicted in more detail and realism, usually outlined, whereas humans are depicted in simple stick figures. Geometric designs occasionally adorn animal bodies.

The South Indian rock art features a mix of monochrome and polychrome paintings, which are mainly in red and white pigments based on natural minerals such as ochre and lime. Images are often outlined in one color and filled with another, and superimposition of newer paintings upon older ones is frequent, which suggests various stages of artistic activity. The engravings or petroglyphs, frequently showing symbols and geometric motifs, are produced by bruising or incising the rock surface

Common Themes and Motifs

The rock art of Central India, particularly in Bhimbetka, showcases diverse themes reflecting prehistoric life. Dominant motifs include wild animals like bison, elephants, and deer, often depicted in herds, emphasizing early humans’ connection to nature. Hunting scenes with armed hunters, traps, and cliff drives are common, along with depictions of social and ritual activities such as group dances and ceremonies. Some paintings feature mythological or religious elements, including deified animals. Later artworks from the historic period depict royal processions, warriors, and battle scenes. Geometric patterns and symbolic motifs illustrate a shift from naturalistic to stylized artistic expression over time.

South Indian rock art features human activities, animals, symbols, and abstract designs. Stick-figure humans with triangular torsos appear in hunting, dancing, and warfare scenes, wielding weapons like bows and swords. Horse and elephant riders, often in battle or processions, are prominent in megalithic dolmens. Common animal motifs include deer, bulls, wild boars, tigers, birds, and fish. Hunting scenes reflect early lifestyles, while geometric and symbolic motifs, such as stars and religious symbols, resemble megalithic pottery graffiti. Ritual elements, including masked figures, suggest totemic or spiritual significance, adding depth to this artistic tradition.

Notable sites

In Central India ,many rock shelters have been discovered mainly in the Vindhyan region and some from Satpura ranges.Besides Bhimbetka, some other well-known sites in this region are Kharwai, Jaora, Kathotia, Lakhajoar, Adamgarh and Panchmarhi in Mahadeo hills
In south of India, some important rock art sites are Kuppagal (Sanaganakallu), Badami, Maski, Piklihal, Tekkalakota in Karnataka, Budagavi, Chintakunta, Kethavaram, Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, Kilvalai ,Sethavarai and Mayiladumparai in Tamil Nadu and Edakkal and Ezuthupara rock shelters in Kerala.

Conclusion

Sources for studying the prehistoric period are limited, with rock art being one of the most valuable. However, a major challenge in understanding rock art is the inability to determine its exact purpose, making its interpretation a subject of ongoing debate. Recent advancements in digitizing archaeology aim to address this challenge, offering new insights into prehistoric art.

Bibliography:

Dayalan, D. and Archaeological Survey of India. n.d. “ROCK ART IN TAMIL NADU AND ITS ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE.”

Boivin, Nicole. 2004. “Rock Art and Rock Music: Petroglyphs of the South Indian Neolithic.” Antiquity 78 (299): 38–53..

Misra, V. N. n.d. “The Prehistoric Rock Art of Bhimbetka, Central India.”

About the Author:

Author: DARSHANA PRIYAA. S

Darshana Priyaa is an undergraduate student pursuing a degree in History, Archaeology, and Museology at Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her academic interests include digital archaeology, numismatics, prehistoric archaeology, and bioarchaeology. She
is deeply passionate about expressing her insights and ideas through writing. Additionally, as a dedicated traveler, she seeks to broaden her understanding by exploring and engaging with diverse cultures.

An Archaeological…

DARSHANA PRIYAA — Thu, 24 Apr 2025 12:58:51 +0000

An Archaeological Perspective about Devadasis

Devadasi is a woman who did the service to some god in a temple. They were temple servants who were dedicated to temple gods as little girls by rituals that were similar to Hindu wedding ceremonies. The devadasi was a dancer and did the temple services. Later they were compelled into prostitution.

Historical Origins

The devadasi system’s origins are debated, with some tracing it back to the third century CE, others to the sixth century, and some to the seventh century during the Chola, Chela, and Pandya dynasties. Initially, devadasis were dedicated to temples as sacred handmaidens, performing dance and music for the gods. Revered and respected, they were educated in sacred arts and scriptures and held high status, often regarded on par with priests. The tradition emphasized celibacy and devotion, with devadasis seen as essential to temple life and cultural preservation.

Although conclusive evidence is still rare, archeological data sheds some light on the Devadasi system. The figures seen in Mathuran and Andhra Pradesh sculptures may be a holdover from temple dancers. The flourishing state of the institution is indicated by inscriptions that reference devadāsīs like Sutanukā, such as the Jogimārā cave inscription from the third century BCE. In addition to performing temple dances, these women were regarded as public prostitutes. Temples used to hire women for dancing and music throughout the Pallava and Chola periods, when devadāsi networks were well-organized. Their functions and pay are described in detail in inscriptions from these eras, including those found in Tanjore and Karnataka. Likewise, in Rajasthan and Orissa, inscriptions mention devadāsīs as part of temple services, highlighting their role in religious festivals and temple life.

Transition from honour to stigma

At first, Devadāsīs were revered as holy women who were married to gods, with privileges including owning property and carrying out specific rituals. They were self-sufficient and frequently paid with land. Due to financial need, many mothers from lesser varnas donated their daughters to temples, and the custom eventually became inherited. As the organization developed, devadāsīs became more closely linked to prostitution, particularly following societal shifts and economic difficulties. Despite their initial status as highly esteemed temple performers, the practice changed by the colonial era from sacred dancers to despised prostitutes.

The Reformists and the Revivalists of the Devadasis

In the late 1800s, social movements emerged against the devadāsi system, dividing into Reformist and Revivalist movements. Reformers, primarily educated upper-class Hindus, sought to abolish the devadāsi system, targeting temple dances linked to prostitution. Muthulakshmi Reddi proposed a bill in 1927 to illegalize the dedication of women to temples, arguing against their perceived immorality. However, devadāsīs defended their roles as religious artists and opposed the stigma of prostitution.

In contrast, the Revivalist movement, supported by the Theosophical Society and figures like Rukmini Devi Arundale, advocated for reviving the devadāsi dance, Sadir, disassociated from prostitution. They rebranded it as Bharatanatyam, emphasizing its spiritual significance. While Rukmini Devi focused on respectability and spiritual purity, traditional devadāsi dancers like Balasaraswati defended the sensual aspects of the dance as central to its devotion.

Conclusion:

Over time, the devadāsi tradition was redefined, with upper-caste women performing Bharatanatyam, leading to a shift in the perception of the dance from lower-caste immorality to an upper-caste, nationalized art form.

Bibliography

Reddy, Y Ramachandra, and Rm SrIdevi. 2019. “The Origin and Historical Development of Devadasi System in India.” International Journal of Applied Research 5 (1): 106–9. https://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2019/vol5issue1/PartB/5-1-11-352.pdf.

Shingal, Ankur. 2015. “THE DEVADASI SYSTEM: Temple Prostitution in India.” UCLA Women S Law Journal 22 (1). https://doi.org/10.5070/l3221026367.

Shankar, Shreya, and Pranav Ganesan. 2021. “The Devadasis, Dance Community of South India: A Legal and Social Outlook.” International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 29 (1): 102–40. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-bja10052.

About the Author:

Author: DARSHANA PRIYAA. S

Darshana Priyaa is an undergraduate student pursuing a degree in History, Archaeology, and Museology at Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her academic interests include digital archaeology, numismatics, prehistoric archaeology, and bioarchaeology. She is deeply passionate about expressing her insights and ideas through writing. Additionally, as a dedicated traveler, she seeks to broaden her understanding by exploring and engaging with
diverse cultures.

Role of Digital …

DARSHANA PRIYAA — Thu, 03 Apr 2025 06:18:39 +0000

Role of Digital Archaeology in Numismatic Study

Numismatics, the study of coins, is vital for reconstructing historical, economic and socio-cultural contexts, yet traditional manual methods for studying coins often face limitations such as human error and subjectivity. The integration of computational techniques, including image segmentation, pattern recognition and Geographic Information Systems, enhances the precision and efficiency of numismatic research. These technologies also open new avenues for interdisciplinary studies.

Challenges in Coin Study

Traditional methods for studying coins are often labor-intensive and susceptible to human mistakes. The process of analyzing coins, including interpreting inscriptions, designs, and symbols, typically relies on manual techniques with magnifying tools. This can result in inaccuracies or disputed findings, particularly with intricate coins or inscriptions.

There is a significant gap in comprehensive catalogs covering all historical periods, especially for ancient times like those of ancient India. Additionally, new coin types and varieties continue to emerge, further complicating the accuracy and completeness of existing cataloging efforts.

The existence of forgeries and counterfeit coins adds complexity to the study of ancient coins. Many coins, especially from earlier periods, are often forged or counterfeited. Forgeries can be created by plating base metals with precious metals or by casting imitations. Distinguishing authentic coins from forgeries demands a high level of expertise, posing a significant challenge for numismatists.

Key Applications of Digital Archaeology in Numismatics

Digital archaeology significantly enhances the study of numismatics by enabling high-resolution imaging, detailed analysis of coin features, automated classification systems, and the creation of large, and reconstruct historical economic and social contexts with greater precision than traditional methods alone could achieve.

3D imaging

3D imaging is a technology that allows archaeologists to create digital models of artifacts, sites and monuments. 3D scanners use structured light or lasers to capture 3D surface data. Archaeologists can then use specialized software to stitch together overlapping photos of an excavation site into a 3D model. 3D imaging provides an exceptionally detailed view of a coin’s surface, capturing intricate details that might be hard to observe with the naked eye. The virtual models are used in

3D imaging can be used to digitally reconstruct parts of the coin, restoring missing details or creating visual reconstructions based on surrounding elements.
Scholars can make more accurate comparisons between coins from different regions, rulers, or time periods.
By scanning the coins, researchers can study the techniques of die striking, casting, and engraving. The surface textures captured by 3D scanning can reveal patterns, tool marks, and other aspects of the minting process that might be overlooked using traditional methods.

GIS (geographical information system)

GIS is a technology used to create, manage, analyze, and map data. It connects information to a map, linking locations with details about those places. In numismatics, GIS helps study where and when coins were found, showing patterns in their use and distribution. By mapping coin finds and hoards, GIS helps researchers understand how coins were used in different times and places, just as it has transformed archaeology.

X-Ray microtomography

X-ray microtomography is a 3D imaging method that uses X-rays from different angles to create a full 3D model of an object. It helps scientists see inside solid objects without cutting them open. In numismatics, this method is used to examine coins in detail. It can detect cracks, impurities, internal gaps, and corrosion inside a coin. The way different parts of a coin absorb X-rays can show how the metal was mixed, worn, or changed over time. For example, a Roman coin was scanned, revealing a crack inside it. The scan produced 186 image slices, which can be viewed like a film to see the coin’s internal structure from different angles.

Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI)

RTI is a Computational Photography assisted technique, which uses multi-lighting conditions to capture a set of images, from a fixed camera position, with the aim of virtually and interactively revealing the characteristics of an imaged surface. It captures detailed images before, during, and after cleaning, stabilization, and consolidation of the coins. This allowed researchers to document surface changes over time. By using virtual relighting, RTI revealed hidden inscriptions, fine scratches, and surface textures that were difficult to see with the naked eye.

Conclusion

Digital archaeology has immensely changed numismatics studies by addressing traditional challenges including human mistake, incompleteness in catalogs,and forgery difficulties. Methods such as 3D imaging, GIS, X-ray microtomography, and RTI provide accurate analysis and more preservation of coins. The digital tools are more accurate and efficient thus enabling researchers to uncover new evidences.

Bibliography

Oksanen, E., Ehrnsten, F., Rantala, H., & Hyvönen, E. (2023). Semantic Solutions for Democratizing Archaeological and Numismatic data Analysis. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage. https://doi.org/10.1145/3625302

Breier, M. (2010). GIS for Numismatics – Methods of Analyses in the Interpretation of Coin Finds. In Lecture notes in geoinformation and cartography (pp. 171–182). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-15537-6_11

Boon, P., Van Der Maaten, L., Paijmans, H., Postma, E., & Lange, G. (2009). Digital support for archaeology. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 34(2–3), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1179/174327909×441108

Digital techniques for documenting and preserving cultural heritage. (2018). In Amsterdam University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781942401353

Upadhyay, A. K., & Bishwas, M. (2025). Numismatics Research through Computer and Digital Technology: Features and Future Prospects. International Journal of Computer Applications, 186(60), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.5120/ijca2025924357

About the Author:

Author: DARSHANA PRIYAA. S

Darshana Priyaa is an undergraduate student pursuing a degree in History, Archaeology, and Museology at Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her academic interests include digital archaeology, numismatics, prehistoric archaeology, and bioarchaeology. She is deeply passionate about expressing her insights and ideas through writing. Additionally, as a dedicated traveler, she seeks to broaden her understanding by exploring and engaging with diverse cultures.

A Study on Megalithic…

DARSHANA PRIYAA — Mon, 10 Mar 2025 08:38:17 +0000

A Study on Megalithic culture with special referance to Marayoor, Kerala

Introduction

Indian subcontinent’s Iron Age is rather varied region-wise. North India’s Iron Age is marked by unique pottery cultures. South Indian Iron Age features a special kind of burial site, Megaliths. The South Indian Megalithic culture existed from 1500 BCE to the 1^st century BCE. Remains of this culture are found at several sites, mainly in eastern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.. The following is an investigation of megalithic culture based mainly on the site of Marayoor. Marayoor lies in the northeastern corner of Devikulam Taluk, Idukki district, Kerala, on the border with Tamil Nadu. It is 45 kilometers to the northeast of Munnar and 40 kilometers from Udumalpet.

Megalithic Culture of Marayoor

Marayoor is known for dolmen type burials. Marayoor’s megalithic remains include dolmens, cists, menhirs, and urn burials.

Dolmens

Dolmens are table-shaped stone monuments occurring in prehistoric graves. In Maraiyur, they occur in three types: single dolmens, enclosure wall dolmens, and low-type dolmens. Single dolmens are box-shaped structures constructed of four orthostatic slabs overlaying another slab at the top called a capstone. The single dolmens typically occur in the north-south direction. Enclosure-wall dolmens contain two to eight chambers and are built from over six slabs. A noteworthy aspect of the Maraiyur dolmens is the enclosure wall, a fortification-type stone railing or packing surrounded by the complex. Low-type enclosure-wall dolmens are low or small-type dolmens with orthostatic slabs measuring less than 1 m in height. The side scores more than two slabs or boulders. The diverse dolmens at Marayoor indicate its significance as a megalithic hub in South India. Marayoor’s architectural diversity, including enclosure walls and miniature dolmens, distinguishes it from other megalithic sites.

Cist

Cists are stone box-like tombs buried on the ground, referred to as ‘Nilaperu’ in Maraiyur. They are rarer than dolmens and occur in regions with greater soil, such as hill slopes and plains. There are two varieties: simple cists, which are single-chambered with or without a porthole, and cists with stone circles, which are multi-chambered and have a stone or slab circle surrounding them. Certain cists also contain a menhir placed before them, indicating a relationship between the two structures.

Urn Burial

Local terms for urn burial are “Sollnagadi” or “Muthumakkalthali.” These are prevalent as a burial style in Marayoor. Most contain human remains and are found in pits or cist burials. On Tampi’s field study, an urn burial was revealed from the courtyard of the former primary school building. The urn, having a wide neck and rounded edge, held rusted iron tools, such as long spear-shaped blades of about 54 cm in length. Recent excavations at Japattikoda in Marayoor village have also uncovered an urn from a field. A hole is observed in the bottom, 14 cm in diameter. Further excavations in the nearby area resulted in the unearthing of over six urns buried with capstones.

Menhirs

Menhirs consist of a single, upright stone located in numerous sites, with some of them having association with burials or other important places. In the Anjunad Valley, menhirs are more scarce and normally consist of raw, unworked stones vertically erected in the ground. They rarely have any related artifacts and sometimes occur around cists. Menhirs have also been found elsewhere in Maraiyur, like the Karsinad village area, Karayoor in Kanthaloor village, and Chambakkad within the Chinnar area where it is identified as Nattukal Mantha and where it is the object of adoration by Hill Pulayan tribe.

Archaelogical Remains in the Megaliths

Tools like spear-shaped blades, daggers, and arrowheads have been found within the urn graves and dolmens. Shards of Black-and-Red ware and Red ware pottery are most frequently found particularly in the urn graves. Personal adornments like carnelian beads have been found showing use of jewelry for burial purposes. Fragmentary human bones confirm their use as burial sites.These remains are of significant importance in learning about the life of the people who built the megalithic monuments and their funerary practices.

Bibliography

Nihildas N. (2018). “Rock Art and Megaliths: Maraiyur, Kerala” : B.R. Publishing Corporation. India.

Pramod Joglekar and Nikhil Das. (2011-12) “A Preliminary Report on the excavation at Marayoor, Idukki District, Kerala”. Bulletin of the Deccan College, Pune.

Edited by : Dr. G. Premkumar , Director, Dept. of Archaeology.(2015) “ Workshop report on Marayoor Rock Paintings”. Publication Divison, Department of Archaeology, Government of Kerala.

Baiju, Cutuvam Kumaran, Balakrishnan Nair Ajaykumar, Mohanachandran Nair Shyleshchandran, Department of Mining and Geology, Govt. of Kerala, and Department of Chemistry, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham. (2024) “Environmental Forces Shaping settlement and subsistence of ancient civilization: Tracing the patterns in Marayoor, Western Ghats, India.” Journal of Geointerface. Vol. 3.India.

Indira Gandhi National Center for Arts. n.d. “Multidisciplinary Documentation of Rock Art and Its Allied Subjects in Kerala IIIrd Phase” (13th-23rd May, 2018).India.

Nihaldas N. (2015) “ Stone of Death: A Note on the Dolmens of Maraiyur and surrounding Regions, Kerala” Puratattva- Journal of the Indian Archaeological Society, New Delhi.

Anu. C. Kuruvilla, “ Marayoor Dolmens Cry for Attention” The New Indian Express ,05 , November. 2019, https://www.newindianexpress.com/.

About the Author:

Author: DARSHANA PRIYAA. S

Darshana Priyaa is an undergraduate student pursuing a degree in History, Archaeology, and Museology at Madras Christian College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her academic interests include digital archaeology, numismatics, prehistoric archaeology, and bioarchaeology. She is deeply passionate about expressing her insights and ideas through writing. Additionally, as a dedicated traveler, she seeks to broaden her understanding by exploring and engaging with diverse cultures.